Disputes over signatures, handwriting and thumb impressions arise before many different forums — civil and criminal courts, family and commercial courts, consumer commissions, debt recovery and motor accident claims tribunals, arbitral tribunals and departmental enquiries. This reference sets out the principal forums in India’s administration of justice: what each one decides, and where its decisions go next.
Scope. This guide maps the principal kinds of adjudicatory forums in India, from constitutional courts to specialist tribunals and statutory authorities. It is a structured overview, not an exhaustive directory of every State/local forum or every tribunal bench. The forum with jurisdiction depends on the subject, territory, valuation, statutory bar, limitation and relief sought.
Constitutional and regular courts
| Forum / institution | Main role / typical matters | Route / important note |
|---|---|---|
| Supreme Court of India | Apex court; constitutional interpretation, appeals, special leave petitions (Article 136), writs under Article 32, presidential references and other jurisdiction provided by the Constitution/statutes. | Generally the final appellate court. Filing route and maintainability depend on the case and applicable provisions. |
| High Courts | Constitutional courts for States/territories; writ jurisdiction under Article 226, supervisory jurisdiction under Article 227, appeals/revisions and other original or appellate work under law. | Usually supervises subordinate judiciary and hears appeals from many tribunals where the governing statute permits. |
| District & Sessions Court | Principal district-level civil and criminal court. District Judge/Additional District Judge hear civil matters and appeals; Sessions Judge hears serious criminal cases. | Civil jurisdiction may depend on valuation and subject; criminal jurisdiction on the applicable criminal procedure and offence. |
| Civil Judge / Senior Civil Judge / Junior Civil Judge / Subordinate Judge | Civil suits such as title, possession, injunction, declaration, recovery, partition, specific performance and other civil reliefs. | Designation and pecuniary allocation vary by State/High Court rules. |
| Chief Judicial Magistrate / Judicial Magistrates / Metropolitan Magistrates | Criminal proceedings within statutory sentencing and territorial powers; remand, bail and trial of appropriate offences. | Metropolitan Magistrate nomenclature applies in relevant metropolitan arrangements; current criminal laws and local rules govern. |
| Special Courts / designated courts | Courts designated for particular statutes or classes of offences, e.g. POCSO, NDPS, Prevention of Corruption, NIA/UAPA cases, CBI cases, MP/MLA cases and other special legislation. | The statute/notification determines designation, powers, territorial jurisdiction and appeal. |
| Family Courts | Matrimonial disputes, divorce, judicial separation, maintenance, custody/guardianship and specified family matters. | Family Courts Act and relevant personal/statutory law apply. |
| Commercial Courts / Commercial Division or Commercial Appellate Division | Specified commercial disputes, including qualifying business contracts, arbitration-related commercial disputes and other notified categories. | Specified value threshold, pre-institution mediation rules (where applicable), and Commercial Courts Act procedure matter. |
| Small Causes Courts / Provincial Small Cause Courts | Specified lower-value civil claims, often rent or recovery matters depending on local legislation. | Jurisdiction and exclusions vary by State. |
| Rent Controller / Rent Tribunal / Rent Court | Landlord–tenant disputes under the applicable rent-control legislation, including eviction and rent-related proceedings. | Not a single uniform national system; forum and appeal route depend on the local Rent Act. |
| Gram Nyayalayas / Nyaya Panchayats or equivalent local forums | Certain petty civil and criminal matters or local dispute resolution where established by law. | Availability and jurisdiction differ across States; these are not substitutes for every ordinary court. |
Tribunals and specialist adjudicatory bodies
| Forum / institution | Main role / typical matters | Route / important note |
|---|---|---|
| Debt Recovery Tribunal (DRT) | Bank/financial institution debt recovery applications; borrower/guarantor challenges under SARFAESI Act within its statutory jurisdiction. | Appeals commonly go to the Debt Recovery Appellate Tribunal (DRAT); statutory pre-deposit and limitation requirements may apply. |
| Debt Recovery Appellate Tribunal (DRAT) | Appellate forum for specified DRT decisions. | Further judicial review/appeal route depends on the statute and issue; do not assume every matter goes directly to a civil court. |
| National Company Law Tribunal (NCLT) | Company law, insolvency and bankruptcy matters under the Companies Act and Insolvency and Bankruptcy Code, including corporate insolvency resolution and liquidation. | Appeals generally lie to NCLAT, subject to the governing statute and timelines. |
| National Company Law Appellate Tribunal (NCLAT) | Appeals from NCLT and specified competition-law orders/decisions under applicable law. | Further appeal may lie to the Supreme Court on statutory grounds and within the prescribed period. |
| National Green Tribunal (NGT) | Environmental disputes and compensation/restoration claims within the statutes listed in the NGT Act. | Special statutory limitation and appeal provisions apply; not every environmental dispute falls within NGT jurisdiction. |
| Central Administrative Tribunal (CAT) | Specified service/recruitment and employment disputes involving covered Central Government employees and notified bodies. | Statutory appeal/review route is specialised; Supreme Court review/appeal principles apply under the governing law and case law. |
| State Administrative Tribunals (where established) | Specified State public-service matters under the Administrative Tribunals Act and applicable notifications. | Existence and jurisdiction depend on the State and current legal position. |
| Armed Forces Tribunal (AFT) | Service matters and appeals arising from court-martial proceedings for covered armed forces personnel. | Appeals/review are governed by the AFT Act and applicable constitutional/statutory principles. |
| Income Tax Appellate Tribunal (ITAT) | Appeals in specified direct-tax matters, commonly from orders of tax appellate authorities. | Further appeal on substantial questions of law generally lies to the jurisdictional High Court under the Income-tax Act. |
| Customs, Excise and Service Tax Appellate Tribunal (CESTAT) | Specified customs, central excise and service-tax appeals, including legacy matters. | Appeal route differs by issue; some matters go to High Court and some to Supreme Court under the relevant statute. |
| Goods and Services Tax Appellate Tribunal (GSTAT) | Appellate review of specified GST appellate orders, as operationalised under the GST framework. | Check current commencement, bench availability, procedural rules and the relevant State/central notification. |
| Securities Appellate Tribunal (SAT) | Appeals against specified orders of SEBI and certain other financial-market regulators under the applicable statutes. | Further appeal generally lies to the Supreme Court on statutory grounds. |
| Telecom Disputes Settlement and Appellate Tribunal (TDSAT) | Specified telecom, broadcasting and related disputes/appeals under its governing legislation. | Jurisdiction is statutory; further appeal may lie to the Supreme Court as provided by law. |
| Appellate Tribunal for Electricity (APTEL) | Appeals and specified disputes involving electricity regulators and electricity-sector decisions. | Further appeal to the Supreme Court is provided under the Electricity Act on statutory grounds. |
| Railway Claims Tribunal (RCT) | Specified claims for compensation relating to railway accidents/incidents and railway liability. | Appeal route and limitation are prescribed by the Railway Claims Tribunal Act. |
| National Consumer Disputes Redressal Commission (NCDRC) | Consumer complaints and appeals/revisions allocated to the national commission under the Consumer Protection Act. | State and District Consumer Commissions handle other tiers; jurisdictional monetary limits and appeal routes must be checked under current rules. |
| State Consumer Disputes Redressal Commission | Consumer complaints and appeals within State Commission jurisdiction. | Further appeal/revision route depends on the Consumer Protection Act and applicable rules. |
| District Consumer Disputes Redressal Commission | Consumer disputes at district level within the statutory pecuniary and territorial limits. | Consumer commission is a statutory adjudicatory body, not an ordinary civil court. |
| Intellectual Property Appellate Board (IPAB) | Historical forum for certain IP appeals. | IPAB was abolished and functions redistributed by legislation; do not treat it as a generally functioning current forum. |
| Competition Commission of India (CCI) | Competition-law investigations and adjudication, including anti-competitive agreements, abuse of dominance and combinations. | Appeals from specified CCI orders go to NCLAT; further appeal route is statutory. |
| Real Estate Regulatory Authority (RERA) and Real Estate Appellate Tribunal | Project registration, promoter/allottee/agent obligations and specified real-estate complaints; appeals from authority/adjudicating officer. | State-specific RERA rules and jurisdiction apply. A civil court may be barred for matters assigned to the authority, subject to law. |
| Industrial/Labour Courts and Industrial Tribunals | Industrial disputes, specified employment claims, unfair labour practices or other labour-law matters. | The exact forum depends on the applicable labour statute, transition provisions and State structure. |
| Central Government Industrial Tribunal / Labour Court | Specified central-sphere industrial disputes and labour matters. | Reference, standing, limitation and appeal/review depend on the relevant labour legislation. |
| Family/child/women-related statutory forums | Examples include Child Welfare Committees and Juvenile Justice Boards, which make statutory decisions concerning children; other commissions may have inquiry/complaint roles. | Some bodies are adjudicatory and others are investigative, advisory or recommendatory; their powers must not be conflated. |
Statutory authorities and quasi-judicial bodies
| Forum / institution | Main role / typical matters | Route / important note |
|---|---|---|
| Lok Adalat / Permanent Lok Adalat | Settlement-based dispute resolution; Permanent Lok Adalats cover specified public utility services under the Legal Services Authorities Act. | Ordinary Lok Adalat generally records compromise and does not decide a contested case on merits. Awards have statutory finality subject to law. |
| Mediation Centre / Court-annexed mediation | Facilitates consensual settlement in referred or agreed disputes. | A mediator does not normally impose a decision; settlement is documented and receives legal effect according to applicable law. |
| Arbitrator / arbitral tribunal | Private adjudication under an arbitration agreement and the Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996. | Not a State court, though courts support arbitration and hear specified challenges/appeals. Seat, agreement and statute are important. |
| District Magistrate / Additional District Magistrate / Executive Magistrate | Executive and preventive powers under applicable criminal/procedural and special laws; some statutory functions may affect possession, public order or preventive action. | Not the same as a Judicial Magistrate or civil court. Identify the specific statute and nature of the order before choosing a remedy. |
| Revenue Courts / Revenue Officers | Land records, mutation, tenancy, partition of holdings, land revenue and other matters assigned by State land/revenue laws. | Powers and appeal hierarchy are State-specific. Mutation proceedings often do not finally determine civil title. |
| Land Acquisition, Rehabilitation and Resettlement authorities / reference court | Compensation and disputes under land acquisition legislation and related State laws. | The statute specifies the authority, reference court and appeal route. |
| Motor Accident Claims Tribunal (MACT) | Compensation claims arising from motor vehicle accidents. | Appeals and limitation are governed by the Motor Vehicles Act and relevant rules. |
| Electricity Regulatory Commissions (CERC / SERC) | Tariff, licensing, regulatory and sectoral disputes within electricity legislation. | Some orders are appealable to APTEL; check statutory route. |
| Telecom Regulatory Authority of India (TRAI) | Telecom-sector regulation, directions and recommendations. | TRAI itself is not the same as TDSAT; the statute determines which orders/disputes go to TDSAT or another forum. |
| SEBI / RBI / IRDAI / PFRDA and other regulators | Regulatory orders, enforcement, licensing and sectoral supervision in securities, banking, insurance, pensions and other regulated sectors. | A regulator may act administratively, investigate, issue directions or adjudicate; appeals may go to a specialist tribunal or court as prescribed. |
| Central Information Commission / State Information Commissions | Appeals and complaints under the Right to Information Act. | Statutory information-access forums; their powers and further challenge route are specific to the RTI Act. |
| Central/State Human Rights Commissions | Inquire into alleged human-rights violations and perform statutory recommendatory/related functions. | Not equivalent to a civil or criminal trial court; recommendations and powers are governed by the Protection of Human Rights Act. |
| National Commission for Scheduled Castes / Scheduled Tribes / Backward Classes; National Commission for Women; other commissions | Investigative, inquiry, complaint-handling, advisory or recommendatory functions under their enabling laws. | Do not assume every commission can grant an injunction, decree, damages or enforceable relief like a court. |
| Election Commission / election tribunals or designated courts | Election administration and specified election disputes. | Many election challenges must be brought by election petition before the forum and within the period prescribed by the relevant election law. |
| Tax adjudicating authorities and appellate authorities | Assessment, adjudication and appeals in income tax, GST, customs, excise and other tax regimes. | The correct first appeal may be an officer/commissioner (appeals), tribunal, High Court or Supreme Court depending on the tax statute. |
| Registrar / Sub-Registrar and registration authorities | Registration of instruments, stamp/registration compliance and functions assigned by registration law. | Registration does not necessarily conclusively establish title or resolve a substantive title dispute; the remedy depends on the legal issue. |
| Municipal / development authorities and appellate bodies | Building permissions, demolition/sealing, unauthorised construction, planning and municipal enforcement. | Examples include municipal authorities, appellate tribunals and designated courts. For Delhi, identify the exact statute/order and any special tribunal or statutory appeal. |
| National Security Act (NSA) advisory-board process | The National Security Act, 1980 provides preventive-detention powers and an Advisory Board process. | Important clarification: ‘NSA’ is a statute/process, not ordinarily the name of a court or general-purpose legal forum. A challenge may involve constitutional writ jurisdiction and the statute-specific process. |
| NIA Special Court / designated criminal courts | Trials of offences assigned by the National Investigation Agency Act and other applicable special statutes. | Forum depends on the offence, notification/designation and statutory appeal provisions. |
Legal-aid and access-to-justice institutions
| Forum / institution | Main role / typical matters | Route / important note |
|---|---|---|
| National Legal Services Authority (NALSA) | National policy and coordination for legal services and legal aid. | Not an ordinary trial court; legal aid is delivered through the statutory legal services structure. |
| State Legal Services Authority (SLSA) | Legal aid and legal-services programmes at State level. | Can help eligible persons access counsel and legal services. |
| District Legal Services Authority (DLSA) | District-level legal aid, legal literacy, Lok Adalats and related services. | Often the practical first point for eligible litigants seeking free legal aid. |
| Taluk/Sub-Divisional Legal Services Committee | Local legal-aid access and related programmes. | Availability and local arrangements vary. |
| Supreme Court / High Court Legal Services Committees | Legal aid for eligible cases before the respective courts. | Eligibility, application and coverage rules should be checked with the relevant committee. |
How to identify the correct forum
- Identify the legal source of the right and remedy: Constitution, central Act, State Act, rules, contract or tribunal-specific statute.
- Classify the dispute: civil title/possession, criminal offence, service matter, debt recovery, insolvency, tax, consumer, environmental, rent, land/revenue, family, employment or regulatory.
- Check territorial jurisdiction, pecuniary value, subject-matter jurisdiction and whether the statute excludes ordinary civil-court jurisdiction.
- Find the original forum first. Do not assume that a High Court or Supreme Court is the correct first forum merely because the issue is important.
- Check the exact appeal/revision/review/writ route, limitation period, mandatory pre-deposit, notice requirements and any interim-relief provision.
- For urgent interim relief, identify the authority legally empowered to grant it and whether notice, exhaustion of statutory remedy or exceptional circumstances affect maintainability.
- Distinguish a court/tribunal with power to decide disputes from an authority that only investigates, regulates, recommends, mediates or records settlements.
Common abbreviations
| Abbreviation | Stands for |
|---|---|
| SC | Supreme Court of India |
| HC | High Court |
| DRT / DRAT | Debt Recovery Tribunal / Debt Recovery Appellate Tribunal |
| NCLT / NCLAT | National Company Law Tribunal / Appellate Tribunal |
| CAT | Central Administrative Tribunal |
| NGT | National Green Tribunal |
| AFT | Armed Forces Tribunal |
| ITAT | Income Tax Appellate Tribunal |
| CESTAT | Customs, Excise and Service Tax Appellate Tribunal |
| GSTAT | Goods and Services Tax Appellate Tribunal |
| SAT | Securities Appellate Tribunal |
| TDSAT | Telecom Disputes Settlement and Appellate Tribunal |
| APTEL | Appellate Tribunal for Electricity |
| RCT | Railway Claims Tribunal |
| NCDRC | National Consumer Disputes Redressal Commission |
| RERA | Real Estate Regulatory Authority |
| MACT | Motor Accident Claims Tribunal |
| NSA | National Security Act, 1980 (a statute, not a general court/forum) |
| NIA | National Investigation Agency |
| CCI | Competition Commission of India |
| RTI | Right to Information |
In Delhi
Many of these forums sit in Delhi — some serve the whole country, others the National Capital Territory alone.
- Supreme Court of India, New Delhi — sci.gov.in
- High Court of Delhi, New Delhi — delhihighcourt.nic.in
- District courts — seven court complexes: Tis Hazari, Rouse Avenue, Patiala House, Saket, Dwarka, Rohini and Karkardooma. Judges and court rooms: District Courts; official site: delhidistrictcourts.nic.in
- Motor Accident Claims Tribunals, Family Courts and Commercial Courts — sit in the district court complexes: find them with MACT, Family Court or Commercial Court
- Legal aid and Lok Adalats — Delhi State Legal Services Authority and the District Legal Services Authorities: dslsa.org
- National Consumer Disputes Redressal Commission, New Delhi — ncdrc.nic.in
- National Company Law Tribunal (Principal Bench) and National Company Law Appellate Tribunal, New Delhi — nclat.nic.in
- Debt Recovery Tribunals and the Debt Recovery Appellate Tribunal, Delhi — drt.gov.in
- Income Tax Appellate Tribunal, Delhi benches — itat.gov.in
- National Green Tribunal and Central Administrative Tribunal — Principal Benches at New Delhi
Official reference links
- Supreme Court of India — Constitution and court hierarchy
- Supreme Court of India — Jurisdiction and High Courts
- Integrated Government Online Directory — Judiciary, courts and tribunals
- eCourts Services — district courts directory
- Department of Financial Services — DRT/DRAT
- PRS Legislative Research — overview of tribunal system and appeal routes
- eCourts Judgments portal — judgments and orders of the Supreme Court and High Courts
Important
This reference list is informational and is not legal advice for a specific case. Institutional names, benches, pecuniary limits, commencement of tribunals, appeal provisions and local rules can change. Before filing, verify the current statute, notifications, rules and latest binding judgments. The terms ‘forum’, ‘court’, ‘tribunal’, ‘commission’ and ‘authority’ are not interchangeable.