Advances in forensic science have turned expert evidence from mere opinion into scientific proof that the Court can see, verify and judge for itself. These are the questions clients and advocates most often ask. For more detail, see the client guides.
No question matches that search.
- The original is always preferred. Features such as pen pressure, line quality, erasures and indentations are often visible only on the original.
- A clear copy is usually sufficient for a preliminary assessment, and frequently for an opinion — which may then be qualified by the limits of the copy.
- If the original is on the court record, its inspection may be sought with the Court’s permission.
Yes, for a first assessment. A good scan or photograph shows whether there is enough material for an opinion and which further specimens are needed. Scans can lose the fine detail of the writing line, however, so a final opinion may be qualified unless the original, or a clear copy, is examined.
- An opinion can sometimes be given on two or three specimens, but more is always better.
- Specimens close in date to the disputed signature carry the greatest weight.
- Within reason, there cannot be too many genuine standards — every writer shows natural variation.
See the guide Documents & Specimens Required.
There are two kinds of standards:
- Admitted (collected) standards — writing or signatures made in the ordinary course of business: bank records, letters, applications and official records.
- Specimen (requested) writings — written by the person on request, preferably to dictation rather than copied.
The best standards are made in the usual course of business, spread over a period of time, ante litem motam (made before the dispute arose) and close in date to the disputed writing, and of the same class — signatures for signatures, writing for writing.
- When the Court has to form an opinion as to the identity of handwriting or finger impressions, the opinion of a person specially skilled in the field is a relevant fact — under Section 45 of the Indian Evidence Act, 1872, now Section 39 of the Bharatiya Sakshya Adhiniyam, 2023.
- The Court assesses the expert’s qualifications and, above all, the reasons given for the opinion.
- The opinion is weighed together with the rest of the evidence; the final decision rests with the Court.
See the guide Expert Evidence & the Law.
No. Whether a document is forged is decided by the Court. The examiner’s task is to establish the scientific facts — whether the signature or writing is genuine, simulated or traced, and whether the document has been altered — and to give reasons the Court can examine.
Identifying who made a forgery is a separate question, which requires specimens of the person suspected.
Yes. An opinion may be filed in civil, criminal and revenue proceedings, and a complaint or F.I.R. may be lodged on its basis. Registration and investigation of the case rest with the police and the courts.
A specialist who applies scientific methods to questions about documents — the authorship of handwriting and signatures, alterations and erasures, inks and paper, typewriting and finger impressions — so that the findings can be placed before a court.
- Forensic document examination uses scientific methods to determine authorship and authenticity, for legal purposes.
- Graphology claims to assess personality from handwriting. It is a different field, and forensic examination draws no conclusions about personality.
Not reliably. Contrary to popular belief, the handedness, age and gender of a writer cannot be determined with certainty by examining handwriting.
- Simple forgery — the name is written with no attempt to imitate the genuine signature.
- Simulated (copied) forgery — the genuine signature is imitated from a model or from memory.
- Traced forgery — produced over a pencil, carbon or indented outline, or directly over a genuine signature.
- Stamp lifting — signed revenue stamps are lifted from one document and affixed to another.
- Misuse of a signed blank — the body of the document is written above a genuine signature on blank paper.
Each has its own characteristics. The disputed signature is first examined on its own for signs of forgery or genuineness, and then compared with the standards.
- Reflected light — magnified examination in normal light; the usual first step.
- Transmitted light — light passed through the document; used for traced forgeries and erasures.
- Oblique (side) light — reveals erasures that disturb the paper fibres, and indentations.
- Ultraviolet and infrared radiation — reveal chemical erasures and differentiate inks.
- Photography and enlargement — record and demonstrate the findings.
See Tools & Apparatus.
Speed, slant, spacing, shading, size, style, pen position, pen lifts, pen pressure, pictorial effect, proportion of letters, movement, alignment, line quality and the formation of letters. Not every characteristic is significant in every case; their value is assessed case by case, within the writer’s range of natural variation.
- No person can make two signatures that are mathematically identical; signatures that superimpose exactly suggest that one or both were traced.
- A person cannot write better than his or her normal skill.
- The disputed and comparative writings should be in the same script.
- Signatures are compared with signatures and writing with writing — though a signature written in a writing style may be compared with writing.
Rarely. Material must be comparable — cursive with cursive, hand-printing with hand-printing, capital letters with capital letters. Where a writer mixes styles, a limited comparison may be possible. The first step of every examination is to confirm that like is being compared with like.
Yes. The method of examination is the same, but the examiner takes account of the characteristics of the script and how it is taught — the placement of diacritical marks in some scripts, the shading of strokes in others.
Fingerprint patterns fall into four main types — arches, loops, whorls and composites — each further sub-divided for identification and classification.
- The type of pattern
- The core and the delta
- Ridge counting and ridge tracing
- Ridge characteristics — ridge endings, bifurcations, dots and islands — and their relative positions
The ridge characteristics of a finger impression are formed by nature and do not change during life; a positive opinion can therefore be given on the identity or non-identity of impressions, of a thumb or of any finger. Each case may still have its own limitations — a blurred or partial impression, for example. In India, where many documents are executed or witnessed by thumb impression, this examination is of particular importance.
- Fully rolled impressions, with printer’s ink (as used in the Sub-Registrar’s office), on plain white paper.
- At least three to four impressions, together with plain impressions.
- Where it is not certain which digit made the disputed impression, impressions of all ten fingers, each marked as right or left hand.
Yes. Even machines of the same make and model develop individual defects through manufacture and wear. Typewriting identification is of particular value in anonymous letters and typewritten additions or interpolations.
- Inks — distinguished by ultraviolet and infrared examination, revealing additions and alterations.
- Paper — distinguished by its fibres, sizing, thickness and colour.
- Pencil — the lead may be examined microscopically to compare two writings.
It depends on the number of documents and specimens involved. A completion date is agreed at the outset of every matter, and honoured.
Yes. Your identity, your documents and the work done on your behalf are kept strictly confidential.